Archive for Astronomy News

UCSC Astronomy Lecture

Dr. Christopher McKay, planetary scientist with NASA, will discuss the latest findings from the Mars Curiosity Rover and the prospects for finding evidence of life on other worlds. This lively and engaging lecture is designed for the general public. It is presented as part of the Halliday Lecture Series, which promotes public awareness and appreciation for astronomy. Tickets are $3. Go to: santacruztickets.com

Article source: http://www.gtweekly.com/index.php/santa-cruz-arts-entertainment-lifestyles/events-calendar-activities-santa-cruz/eventdetail/138728/-/ucsc-astronomy-lecture.html

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Turbulence explains magnetic field misbehavior in solar flares

Solar-flaresWhen a solar flare filled with charged particles erupts from the Sun, its magnetic fields sometime break a widely accepted rule of physics. The flux-freezing theorem dictates that the magnetic lines of force should flow away in lock-step with the particles, whole and unbroken. Instead, the lines sometimes break apart and quickly reconnect in a way that has mystified astrophysicists.

An interdisciplinary research team led by a Johns Hopkins mathematical physicist said it has found a key to the mystery. The culprit, the group proposed, is turbulence — the same sort of violent disorder that can jostle a passenger jet when it occurs in the atmosphere. Using complex computer modeling to mimic what happens to magnetic fields when they encounter turbulence within a solar flare, the researchers built their case, explaining why the usual rule did not apply.

“The flux-freezing theorem often explains things beautifully,” said Gregory Eyink from Johns Hopkins. “But in other instances, it fails miserably. We wanted to figure out why this failure occurs.”

Seventy years ago, Hannes Alfvén developed the flux-freezing theorem and later won a Nobel Prize in physics for closely related work. His principle states that magnetic lines of force are carried along in moving fluidlike strands of thread cast into a river, and thus they can never “break” and reconnect. But scientists have discovered that within violent solar flares, the principle does not always hold true. Studies of these flares have determined that their magnetic field lines sometimes do break like stretched rubber bands and reconnect in as little as 15 minutes, releasing vast amounts of energy that power the flare. “But the flux-freezing principle of modern plasma physics implies that this process in the solar corona should take a million years!” Eyink said. “A big problem in astrophysics is that no one could explain why flux-freezing works in some cases but not others.”

Some scientists suspected that turbulence was playing havoc with the behavior predicted by this principle. To find out, Eyink teamed up with other experts in astrophysics, mechanical engineering, data management, and computer science, based at Johns Hopkins and other institutions. “By necessity, this was a highly collaborative effort,” Eyink said. “Everyone was contributing their expertise. No one person could have accomplished this.”

The team developed a computer simulation to replicate what happens under various conditions to the charged particles that exist in a plasma state of matter within solar flares. “Our answer was very surprising,” Eyink said. “Magnetic flux-freezing no longer holds true when the plasma becomes turbulent. Most physicists expected that flux-freezing would play an even larger role as the plasma became more highly conducting and more turbulent, but, as a matter of fact, it breaks down completely. In an even greater surprise, we found that the motion of the magnetic field lines becomes completely random. I do not mean chaotic, but instead as unpredictable as quantum mechanics. Rather than flowing in an orderly, deterministic fashion, the magnetic field lines instead spread out like a roiling plume of smoke.”

Although some scholars may still believe there are other explanations for solar flares, Eyink said, “I think we made a pretty compelling case that turbulence alone can account for field-line breaking.”

The way the researchers from different disciplines teamed up with Eyink to solve the solar flare puzzle was particularly noteworthy. “We used ground-breaking new database methods, like those employed in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, combined with high-performance computing techniques and original mathematical developments,” he said. “The work required a perfect marriage of physics, mathematics, and computer science to develop a fundamentally new approach to performing research with very large datasets.”

Eyink added that the research could lead to a better understanding of solar flares and mass ejections of material from the Sun’s corona. Such powerful “space weather” or geomagnetic storms can endanger astronauts, knock out communications satellites, and even lead to massive blackouts of electrical power grids on Earth, he said.

Article source: http://www.astronomy.com/~/link.aspx?_id=1004b1df-6400-4635-9366-518d0198140b

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Accurate distance measurement resolves major astronomical mystery

SS Cygni double-star systemSometimes astronomy is like real estate — what’s important is location, location, location. Astronomers have resolved a major problem in their understanding of a class of stars that undergo regular outbursts by accurately measuring the distance to a famous example of the type.

The researchers used the National Science Foundation’s Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) and the European VLBI Network (EVN) to precisely locate one of the most observed variable-star systems in the sky — a double-star system called SS Cygni — at 370 light-years from Earth. This new distance measurement meant that an explanation for the system’s regular outbursts that applies to similar pairs also applies to SS Cygni.

“This is one of the best-studied systems of its type, but according to our understanding of how these things work, it should not have been having outbursts. The new distance measurement brings it into line with the standard explanation,” said James Miller-Jones of the Curtin University node of the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research in Perth, Australia.

SS Cygni, in the constellation Cygnus the Swan, is a dense white dwarf star in a close orbit with a less massive red dwarf. The strong gravity of the white dwarf pulls material from its companion into a swirling disk surrounding the white dwarf. The two stars orbit each other in only about 6.6 hours. On an average of once every 49 days, a powerful outburst greatly brightens the system.

This type of system is called a dwarf nova, and, based on other examples, scientists proposed that the outbursts result from changes in the rate at which matter moves through the disk onto the white dwarf. At high rates of mass transfer from the red dwarf, the rotating disk remains stable, but when the rate is lower, the disk can become unstable and undergo an outburst.

This mechanism seemed to work for all known dwarf novae except SS Cygni, based on previous distance estimates. Hubble Space Telescope measurements in 1999 and 2004 put SS Cygni at a distance of about 520 light-years.

“That was a problem. At that distance, SS Cygni would have been the brightest dwarf nova in the sky and should have had enough mass moving through its disk to remain stable without any outbursts,” Miller-Jones said.

The closer distance measured with the radio telescopes means that the system is intrinsically less bright and now fits the characteristics outlined in the standard explanation for dwarf nova outbursts, the scientists said.

The astronomers made the new distance measurement using the VLBA and EVN, both of which use widely separated radio telescopes that work together as a single, extremely precise telescope. These systems are capable of the most accurate measurements of positions in the sky available in astronomy.

By observing SS Cygni when Earth is on opposite sides of its orbit around the Sun, astronomers can measure the subtle shift in the object’s apparent position in the sky compared to the background of more-distant objects. This effect, called parallax, allows scientists to directly measure an object’s distance by applying simple high school trigonometry.

The astronomers knew that SS Cygni emits radio waves during its outbursts, so they made their radio telescope observations after receiving reports from amateur astronomers that an outburst was underway. They observed the object during outbursts from 2010 to 2012.

The difference in the distance measurements between the Hubble visible light and the radio observations may have several causes, the scientists said. The radio observations were made against a background of objects far beyond our Milky Way Galaxy, while the Hubble observations used stars within our galaxy as reference points. The more distant objects provide a better, more stable reference, the astronomers pointed out. The radio observations, they added, are immune to other possible sources of error as well.

Discovered in 1896, SS Cygni is a popular object for amateur astronomers. According to the American Association of Variable Star Observers, not a single outburst of SS Cygni has been missed since its discovery. It has been observed nearly half a million times, and its brightness variations have been carefully tracked, making it one of the most intensely studied astronomical objects of the past century.

Article source: http://www.astronomy.com/~/link.aspx?_id=abe91ced-c0a9-46c4-a561-44ab081987bb

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New book "99 New Discoveries in Astronomy" researches alternative energy via …

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SALISBURY, U.K. (PRWEB) May 23, 2013

Money spent on research to create and harness energy from hydrogen fusion is a waste, according to astronomy researcher and author, P.J. Tomlin, who says this is an unattainable feat.

In his new book, 99 New Discoveries in Astronomy, Tomlin reveals his research findings, many of which fly in the face of popular belief. The findings challenge topics such as the role time plays in controlling the behavior of the universe, the Big Bang Theory, enigmas of the Hubble constant, dark matter and more.

The implications of Tomlin’s research suggest that, among other things, we may be looking for alternative energy solutions in the wrong place.

“Hydrogen fusion is thought to be responsible for the sun’s remarkable, prolonged stability, but it is an impossible source of surplus energy,” Tomlin says. “Perhaps the most unexpected finding was that time has an unusual property; one that is responsible for much of the behavior of the universe.”

Tomlin’s motivation for delving into issues related to theoretical astronomy came from his professional background.

“As a researcher, critical attention was always necessary in the analysis, accuracy, reliability and interpretation of data,” Tomlin says. “As a result, I developed a healthy skepticism for quantitative data.”

99 New Discoveries in Astronomy

By P.J. Tomlin

ISBN: 978-14722 3511-9

Approx.142 pages

Paperback 6×9

Retail price: $

E-book price: $

Available at Amazon, Barnes Noble

About the author

P.J. Tomlin is a retired medical doctor and academic who says that data, when gathered correctly, is sacrosanct. A late professor of Memorial University in Canada and a former lecturer at University of Birmingham in England, Tomlin became interested in understanding the physics that underlie the Hubble constant after retiring. Having knowledge of the expansion of the universe whetted his curiosity and unleashed 99 new astronomy discoveries, Tomlin says.

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Article source: http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/5/prweb10754583.htm

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Seeing the larger picture: Inspiring images of space

Now, a major new exhibition will chart our role in the universe and how we see it, by displaying over 100 images of space and the cosmos. This is not a purely modern art: they have been captured over the last two centuries.

The images range from the very first picture of the Moon in 1839 to the latest Nasa pictures which have taken advantage of highly complex techniques such as infrared and gamma rays to steal glimpses of distant planets, will go on show at the Royal Museums Greenwich in London next month.

The collection, thought to be one of the most comprehensive of its kind exploring telescopy and photography, will include a 13 metre curved wall on to which the latest real-time images of Mars will be beamed back from Nasa’s Mars Curiosity rover, some 30-odd million miles away. The images, viewed by visitors through a giant window, will give the surreal impression of looking straight on to the alien, Martian landscape, according to the museum’s curators.  

Man’s quest to chart the universe dates back to the 17th century when it was down to astronomers and physicists like Galileo to draw images of space seen through their telescopes. These early reproductions were prone to human error and lacked detail. Nevertheless, once published they were considered ground-breaking for introducing the masses to what telescopes were revealing about space.

Real advancement didn’t arrive until the advent of photography in the mid-19th century when the Frenchman Louis Daguerre took his famous image of the Moon in 1839, though the technology was still extremely primitive and the image fuzzy.

“Photography transformed astronomy,” said Dr Marek Kukula, public astronomer at the Royal Observatory Greenwich. “Suddenly it becomes something whereby you can get very precise measurements in a way you can’t when you’re just looking and drawing what you see.”

Far more sensitive than the human eye, the marriage of photography and astronomy also, more often than not, throws up new questions.

“You have this lovely synergy between astronomy and photography where the astronomers are continually pushing at what the technology can do,” said Dr Kukula. “As they push it, new phenomena are revealed for astronomers to study. One of the big advances was coming up with technology where cameras and telescopes could see light beyond the visible spectrum, so going beyond infrared and microwave radio. They can show us the universe in types of light our eyes can never ever see.” 

The quality and relative affordability of digital photography has made it possible for amateur photographers to take it up as a hobby, with images of the night sky obtained using the most basic film and cameras.

“One of the cool things about astrophotography and the digital photography revolution is there is a lot of stuff in the sky you can take pictures of – despite the light pollution,” added Dr Kukula. “Some of our amateur photographers have even made a feature of the light pollution.”

Visions of the Universe, 7 June to 15 September at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich

Article source: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/seeing-the-larger-picture-inspiring-images-of-space-8629979.html

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Sky’s the limit for Durham astronomy club

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Durham Region Astronomical Association opens up the wonders of the night sky

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Take a look and see…

DURHAM — A few celestial events to look forward to in 2013:

May 25: Penumbral lunar eclipse. A penumbral lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes through the Earth’s partial shadow, or penumbra. During this type of eclipse the moon will darken slightly but not completely. The eclipse will be visible throughout most of North America, South America, western Europe and western Africa.

May 28: Conjunction of Venus and Jupiter. Conjunctions are rare events where two or more objects will appear extremely close together in the night sky. The two bright planets will be close to each other in the evening sky. The planet Mercury will also be visible nearby. Look to the west near sunset.

July 27, 28: Delta Aquarids meteor shower. The Delta Aquarids is an average shower that can produce up to 20 meteors per hour at its peak. It is produced by debris left behind by comets Marsden and Kracht. The shower runs annually from July 12 to Aug. 23. It peaks this year on the night of July 27 and morning of July 28. The second quarter moon will block out most of the faint meteors, but you should still be able to catch quite a few good ones if you are patient. Best viewing will be from a dark location after midnight. Meteors will radiate from the constellation Aquarius, but can appear anywhere in the sky.

August 11, 12: Perseids Meteor Shower. The Perseids is one of the best meteor showers to observe, producing up to 60 meteors per hour at its peak. It is produced by comet Swift-Tuttle, which was discovered in 1862. The Perseids are famous for producing a large number of bright meteors. The shower runs annually from July 17 to Aug. 24. It peaks this year on the night of Aug. 11 and the morning of Aug. 12. The first quarter moon will set shortly after midnight leaving dark skies for what should be an excellent show. Best viewing will be from a dark location after midnight. Meteors will radiate from the constellation Perseus, but can appear anywhere in the sky.

August 27: Neptune at Opposition. The blue giant planet will be at its closest approach to Earth and its face will be fully illuminated by the sun. This is the best time to view and photograph Neptune. Due to its extreme distance from Earth, it will only appear as a tiny blue dot in all but the most powerful telescopes.

November 28: Comet ISON closest approach to the sun. Newly discovered comet ISON will make its closest approach to the sun on Nov. 28. If the comet survives its encounter with the sun, it could be one of the brightest comets in recent memory. Some astronomers estimate that it could even be bright enough to be seen during daylight hours. In August and September, the comet will begin to be visible in the morning sky in dark locations with telescopes. In October it will start to be visible to the naked eye and will continue to get brighter until Nov. 28. If the comet survives, it will be visible in the early morning and early evening sky and could be nearly as bright as the full moon. Some astronomers are already calling it the comet of the century.

Source: www.seasky.org

DURHAM — Michael Cook remembers clearly the first time he looked up and saw a star-filled sky.

Five years old and travelling north to a hunting and fishing camp with his father, the city lights far behind them, Mr. Cook recalls looking out a window and gazing at a dark night sky, dotted with sparkling stars.

“When you live in the city, you can maybe only see a handful of stars,” says Mr. Cook. “It was just magical. I fell in love with (astronomy) right then.”

It’s a passion that’s stuck with the Newcastle man for his entire life, in particular the past 35 years which has seen his interest and knowledge of the night sky grow to the point where he now serves as president of the Durham Region Astronomical Association (DRAA).

The DRAA was founded in 2001 after Durham stargazing enthusiasts tired of travelling to Toronto clubs. It was an instant success, growing to almost 100 members in less than two years.

“It’s never been easier to get into astronomy,” says Mr. Cook, crediting the vast amounts of information that can be found on the Internet.


View the photo gallery

Like any hobby, he says, it depends on how much time, effort and money you want to put into it.

There are people who simply want to stare at the stars, pointing to places they’ll never visit, and others who delve deep into the scientific end of astronomy.

“It’s as easy as watching TV,” says Mr. Cook. “Like any hobby, it just depends on how far you want to take it. There’s a whole gamut of what you can do.”

For beginners, the DRAA president suggests just picking up a good pair of binoculars and looking up into the night sky. There’s no need to purchase a pricey telescope right off the bat, stresses Mr. Cook.

“Lay on the ground on a beach towel and just take a look around,” he says. “There’s lots to see.”

The DRAA serves as a resource for astronomers of all levels, providing members with opportunities to meet and discuss their findings during regular meetings at the Whitby library, but also prides itself on its public outreach efforts to share the world of astronomy.

“We try and involve literally every segment of society, from the very youngest to the oldest,” says Mr. Cook, noting the club jumps at offers to share its knowledge everywhere it can, from schools and service clubs to Scouting groups and seniors’ centres.

Various workshops are also held to teach astronomy enthusiasts how to use telescopes, find things in the sky and analyze stars. It’s not necessary to own a telescope to join the club.

The DRAA also secured a government grant in 2005, which allowed it to purchase special equipment that projects what is seen through a telescope onto a screen or monitor.

“We want to attract people, especially youth and women,” says Mr. Cook. “Astronomy is dominated pretty much by middle-aged white men and we want to change that.”

The DRAA is also working on light pollution abatement, trying to convince various levels of government to enact bylaws and policies to lower outdoor lighting that brightens the night sky and is essentially a waste of hydro, says Mr. Cook.

“We want to focus light where we need it and not spill light where it’s a nuisance and a waste of energy,” he says.

With a seemingly endless supply of stars to gaze at, there’s always plenty to look at in the night sky.

“It’s a crazy, big place for sure… space is so much bigger than we ever thought,” says Mr. Cook. “It’s just mind-boggling and there’s lots of neat stuff yet to find.

“The sky’s the limit on what we’re going to find out.”




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David Bacha Band May 24 at Oshawa's Chasers


David Bacha Band May 24 at Oshawa’s Chasers

The trouble with Star Trek

  • Bicycle Fun and Safety Day Saturday in Whitby
  • Etobicoke philharmonic visits Durham
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Astronomers Discover Extremely Luminous Mega-Galaxy – Sci

According to an international team of astronomers working with ESA’s Herschel Space Telescope, two gas-rich, actively star-forming galaxies that collided 11 billion years ago are rapidly forming a new elliptical mega-galaxy, labeled HXMM01.

Multi-wavelength view of the merging galaxy pair HXMM01 (ESA / NASA / JPL-Caltech / UC Irvine / STScI / Keck / NRAO / SAO)

Multi-wavelength view of the merging galaxy pair HXMM01 (ESA / NASA / JPL-Caltech / UC Irvine / STScI / Keck / NRAO / SAO)

Most massive galaxies in the Universe fall into two major categories: gas-rich spiral galaxies and gas-poor elliptical galaxies. Scientists have been investigating for decades how these two different types of galaxies came into being and whether spirals may be the progenitors of elliptical galaxies via galactic mergers.

A puzzling discovery made in the past decade was that of so-called ‘red and dead’ galaxies in the young Universe: very massive and passive elliptical galaxies found at redshifts between 2 and 1.5, corresponding to epochs in cosmic history when the Universe was 5 to 3 billion years old. Somehow, on a short cosmological timescale, these galaxies managed to exhaust their gas reservoir and consequently stopped forming stars: this left them with stellar populations that had already aged enough to appear red and old.

The new mega-galaxy HXMM01 is about 10 times the size of the Milky Way. It is the brightest, most luminous and most gas-rich submillimeter-bright galaxy merger known.

“Capturing the creation of this type of large, short-lived star body is extremely rare – the equivalent of discovering a missing link between winged dinosaurs and early birds,” said the scientists, who have reported their discovery in the journal Nature (arXiv.org version).

HXMM01 is fading away as fast as it forms, a victim of its own cataclysmic birth. As the two parent galaxies smashed together, they gobbled up huge amounts of hydrogen, emptying that corner of the Universe of the star-making gas.

Study lead author Dr Hai Fu from the University of California Irvine said: “these galaxies entered a feeding frenzy that would quickly exhaust the food supply in the following hundreds of million years and lead to the new galaxy’s slow starvation for the rest of its life.”

“Finding this type of galaxy is as important as the discovery of the archaeopteryx was in understanding dinosaurs’ evolution into birds, because they were both caught at a critical transitional phase.”

______

Bibliographic information: Hai Fu et al. The rapid assembly of an elliptical galaxy of 400 billion solar masses at a redshift of 2.3. Nature, published online May 22, 2013; doi: 10.1038/nature12184

Article source: http://www.sci-news.com/astronomy/article01094-hxmm01-galaxy-herschel.html

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“Bad Astronomy” on the Front Page of Wikipedia Today. Literally.

They did this for my book entry, and did an amazing job. The book came out in 2002, and there’s been a short entry about it on Wikipedia for some time. But her team took it on as a project, expanding it by a factor of five (!), updating links, and so on. Getting it on the front page of Wikipedia was no easy task, and I thank her for it.

Article source: http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2013/05/23/bad_astronomy_book_featured_on_the_front_page_of_wikipedia.html

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No UFO but planets align, according to astronomy enthusiasts

Topics: 

astronomy,

fraser coast,

planets,

toogoom,

ufo

This image of the unidentified flying object was was captured by reader Chelly Milzewski on Saltwater Creek Rd in Maryborough about 5.20pm on Monday.
This image of the unidentified flying object was was captured by reader Chelly Milzewski on Saltwater Creek Rd in Maryborough about 5.20pm on Monday. Chelly Milzewski

A STRANGE light spotted on the western horizon of the Fraser Coast on Monday evening is most likely a planetary alignment that will not happen again until 2026, say Hervey Bay astronomy enthusiasts.

Joe Mather, president of the Hervey Bay Astronomical Society, said members had agreed it was highly likely what people saw was the alignment of Jupiter, Mercury and Venus.

“For over a month, Jupiter has slowly moved across our night skies to join Venus and Mercury on our western horizon,” Mr Mather said.

“It’s not often they align like that. It’s an event that won’t be repeated until 2026.”

Mr Mather said the reflection of the sun, combined with the weather conditions, would have made the planets appear as a bright, solid form on Monday evening.

“Because of the angle, it would have appeared to shine and appeared to move,” he said.

Mr Mather said the planets would be best viewed from this Friday through to Wednesday.

“For five or six days, we have all three of the brightest planets dancing around a five degree patch in our evening sky,” he said.

“At their closest the dance floor will have shrunk to about two-and-a-half degrees.”

Article source: http://www.frasercoastchronicle.com.au/news/no-ufo-but-planets-align/1878923/

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Mega galaxy is missing link in history of cosmos

Colliding galaxies into one mega galaxy called HXMM01Two hungry young galaxies that collided 11 billion years ago are rapidly forming a massive galaxy about 10 times the size of the Milky Way, according to the University of California (UC), Irvine, led research conducted on the W. M. Keck Observatory and other research facilities around the world.

Capturing the creation of this type of large short-lived star body is extremely rare — the equivalent of discovering a missing link between winged dinosaurs and early birds, said the scientists, who relied primarily on data from Keck Observatory’s NIRC2 fitted with the laser guide star adaptive optics (LGSAO) system. The new mega galaxy, dubbed HXMM01, is the brightest, most luminous, and most gas-rich submillimeter bright galaxy merger known.

HXMM01 is fading away as fast as it forms, a victim of its own cataclysmic birth. As the two parent galaxies smashed together, they gobbled up huge amounts of hydrogen, emptying that corner of the universe of the star-making gas.

“These galaxies entered a feeding frenzy that would quickly exhaust the food supply in the following hundreds of million years and lead to the new galaxy’s slow starvation for the rest of its life,” said Hai Fu from UC.

The discovery solves a riddle in understanding how giant elliptical galaxies developed quickly in the early universe and why they stopped producing stars soon after. Other astronomers have theorized that giant black holes in the heart of the galaxies blew strong winds that expelled the gas. But cosmologist Asantha Cooray, also from UC, said that they and colleagues across the globe found definitive proof that cosmic mergers and the resulting highly efficient consumption of gas for stars are causing the quick burnout.

“Finding this type of galaxy is as important as the discovery of the Archaeopteryx was in understanding dinosaurs’ evolution into birds, because they were both caught at a critical transitional phase,” Fu said.

Julie Wardlow from UC initially spotted the new galaxy, also with Cooray’s group. She noticed “an amazing bright blob” in images of the so-called cold cosmos — areas where gas and dust come together to form stars — recorded by the European Space Agency’s Herschel telescope with important contributions from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. “Herschel captured carpets of galaxies, and this one really stood out.”

Follow-up views at a variety of wavelengths were obtained at more than a dozen ground-based observatories, particularly the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii.

“The NIRC2/LGSAO image has revealed the existing stellar population of this pair of galaxies,” Fu said. “The radiation captured by Keck tells us how many stars have already been formed in the system at the observed epoch. These data told us the constituents of the galaxy pair: They are each made of half gas and half stars, which indicate they are nascent galaxies in formation.”

The NIRSPEC spectra measured the velocity difference of the two galaxies at only 200 miles per second (300 km/s), indicating that the two galaxies are soon to merge instead of just flying by each other. The spectra also show the high-velocity winds driven by the intense star formation in both galaxies, uncovering the violent environment in these galaxies.

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